The Southern Border

A DUAL SPIRIT and a bilingual expression of that spirit's responses to people, life and the land along both sides of the Rio Grande have created the significant literature of the borderlands of the Southwest. Those writers who possess such a spirit are those who have spent enough of their life–often most of it–assimilating the Anglo-Mexican cultural blend which became inevitable when Spanish conquistadores marched onto Mexican soil and Anglo settlers came to Virginia in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

So unique and thorough is this cultural synthesis that a talented Ohioan educated at Kenyon College could come as a young man to El Paso to live and write, take his Mexican wife's name and designate his birthplace as Parral, Chihuahua, and ultimately have his work included in anthologies devoted to Chicano writing. Known as Amado Muro to those who admired his short stories and sketches of Mexican life, ¹ Chester Seltzer established his credibility as a Mexican-American writer with critics through sensitive revelation of Mexican personality and culture. Only his close friends knew that Muro was Anglo until after his death in 1971.

A complex people with an intricate culture, border Mexicans and Anglos share historically a love of open spaces, an attachment to the arid land along the great river and deserts forming that border, and the endurance required to survive in that isolated and often inhospitable country. Anglos and Mexicans along the Rio Grande and the southern border of the Southwest have been allies fighting common adversaries. They have battled each other. They have married each other. They have hated and loved, detested and admired each other. Loyal friendships between Mexican and Anglo have lasted lifetimes. But duality of understanding has all too often given way to duplicity of character, and traitors on both sides have not been uncommon. Both peoples have considered themselves to be rightful inheritors of the brushy ranchlands between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande, and both have battled Native Americans who claimed that land first.

Equally interesting to Anglo adventurers in the early nineteenth century was the Pacific end of the southern border, occupied by Spanish hidalgos, Franciscan mission fathers and subservient Indians. Human life was scarce along the borderlands stretching from the Rio Grande along arid desert lands, over rough mountain ranges and through formidable Apache territory to this western Spanish settlement of southern California. Nevertheless, by ship around South America, Anglos came to trade with the Indians for sea otter hides and with the missions and Spanish cattle raisers for the hides and tallow of their longhorned cattle. Mountain men drifted west across the desert in search of beaver as they depleted their sources in the Rockies. Cattlemen began to encroach upon land the Spanish claimed as soon as America won the Mexican War. Merchants and farmers looking for a new start arrived. Here, too, between races, culture took on the coloring of both gringo and Mexican, who were connected by both place and their humanity, whether they wished to be or not. Paradoxes and ambiguities developed in racial relationships along the California southern border as they did along the Rio Grande.

However, despite its remoteness and risks encountered by its explorers and would-be settlers–or more likely, because of those realities–the border country of the Southwest has been a romantic land from the beginning to those who wrote about it. At first came the chroniclers of the first journeys across those spaces. The Spaniard Cabeza de Vaca, with three companions, traversed the Texas Big Bend area and crossed the Rio Grande some time between 1528 and 1536. Although his is a realistic account of the primitive Indian's life, the wildlife and the terrain, in La Relación (1542) Cabeza de Vaca also describes how the Indians considered him to be a healer and his apparently satisfactory fulfillment of the role. Consequently, this early narrative, invaluable to historians, has also fueled creative imaginations. Two notable works inspired by La Relación are Morris Bishop's Odyssey of Cabeza de Vaca (1933), an imaginative retelling of the story, and Haniel Long's Interlinear to Cabeza de Vaca (1936), an exploration of the mystery of the explorer's healing powers.

Several decades after Cabeza de Vaca's narrative appeared, Don Juan de Oñate crossed the borderlands from south to north in 1598 on his way from Chihuahua to colonize New Mexico. One of his lieutenants, Gaspar Perez de Villagrá, a man of action who also fancied himself a poet, described in verse Oñate's career as a colonizer. Of little literary value as poetry, Villagrá's History of New Mexico (1610) intrigues historians with its eyewitness reporting of initial Spanish-Indian confrontations and compromises along the Rio Grande.

Coping with setbacks, including a major revolt of Pueblo Indians in 1680, Spanish pioneers continued to settle along the river for the next two centuries. When surviving Spaniards fled from the Santa Fe area during the uprising, they found refuge in the El Paso area where settlements had already been established. It was yet another century, however, before AngloAmericans began to chase mustangs across Texas and covet the territory.

During the nineteenth century, the writers who responded to borderland experience most often recorded highlights of journeys across this land. Often the chroniclers were participants in forced marches to Mexico, initiated by Spaniards who resented the Anglo incursion into land they claimed on both sides of the great river. Ellis Bean, a member of Philip Nolan's illfated horse-hunting–and probably filibustering–venture to the Brazos in 1800, wrote one of the first prisoner narratives. His Memoir was published in 1856.

When Texas Republic president Mirabeau Lamar stubbornly commissioned the Texas-Santa Fe Expedition in 1841, an astute young journalist went along to report what he first believed to be a trading mission. George Wilkins Kendall of the New Orleans Picayune soon perceived that Lamar had grandiose plans to annex New Mexico to his republic. Kendall records with a sense of the newsworthy the hardships the imprisoned members of the party suffered on their march to Mexico in his Narrative of the Texan Santa Fe Expedition (1844). In 1842, one other ill-advised effort to invade Mexico resulted in Thomas Jefferson Green's Journal of the Texian Expedition Against Mier (1845), which relates the dramatic story of the drawing of black beans to determine which prisoners would be shot.

To supplement these valuable historical sources, writers turn also to travelers' and Texas Rangers' accounts for knowledge of Rio Grande and other southern border settlement. Early California and southwestern life is recorded by James O. Pattie, a young Kentucky mountain man who wandered after much hardship into San Diego in 1827 with his father and a party of trappers. After six years as a traveler across southwestern borderlands, Pattie published an account of his adventures in 1831. Edited by Timothy Flint, The Narrative of James O. Pattie of Kentucky describes in detail the border life he had observed.

A young bride, Susan Shelby Magoffin, had the foresight to keep a diary on her trip down the Santa Fe Trail with her trader husband in 1846–47. For a month in early 1847, as the Mexican War heated up, the couple awaited word in El Paso from Doniphan's and Taylor's troops that passage down the river into Chihuahua was safe. Susan was impressed with her El Paso Spanish hosts' learning and good manners. Of one family she said:

The more I see of this family the more I like them, they are so kind and attentive, so desirous to make us at ease, so anxious for our welfare in the disturbances of the country. I can't help loving them. The old gentleman remarked at breakfast this morning, that he sympathized . . . much with me in the troubles, dangers, and difficulties I have been in, those I am now in, and those I may be in, but with all he says I am learning a lesson that not one could have taught me but experience, the ways of the world. ²

Around the turn of the twentieth century, journalists flocked to southern California for adventure or for their health and developed a great affinity for the vast deserts of the Southwest. Life and lore of the Indians, natural life, the Colorado River and the colorful landscape furnished material for John C. Van Dyke's The Desert (1904) and George Wharton James's The Wonders of the Colorado Desert (1906) and Arizona the Wonderland (1917). Both reporters tend to rhapsodize as they present the desert landscape from the romantic's perspective; both, however, convey comprehensive information about desert Indian customs, nature and the Spanish California culture of their time. More realistic are the works of journalist and artist J. Ross Browne. Adventures in the Apache Country, published in 1869, is Browne's account of a four-month excursion into the Arizona territory with the Superintendent of Indian Affairs in 1863. First published in Harper's and illustrated by the author, this collection of articles is an astute observer's portrayal of the home of the Apache in southern Arizona and in Sonora, Mexico.

Perhaps the best-known journalist of this period in southern California was Charles F. Lummis, who, more than the others, consciously developed the duality of personality native borderlanders seemed to possess. He had lived with the Indians at Isleta, southernmost pueblo on the Rio Grande, and fancied himself more native than most other Anglo southwesterners. His most worthy contribution to border literature is The Land of Poco Tiempo (1893), in which he chronicles the life and lore of the New Mexico Indians, including a compassionate eyewitness account of the chilling rituals of Los Hermanos Penitentes. Perhaps Lummis's most worthy contribution to literary effort along the southern border was his diligent editorship of the southern California magazine, Land of Sunshine, first called Out West, for ten years at the turn of the century. Eugene Manlove Rhodes and Mary Austin were frequent contributors. It was Mary Austin who produced the book that critics often refer to as a classic treatment of the border desert land. In The Land of Little Rain (1903)–and later in The Land of Journeys' Ending (road)–this transplanted midwesterner who had found southern California and New Mexico to be her natural habitat conveys the history, the native culture and a sense of the land.

Because the nineteenth century was an era requiring action along the borderlands, there was little time for creative response to the conflicts ignited by the merging Indian-Mexican-Anglo cultures. But those who did write firsthand accounts of border life left rich materials for twentieth-century creative imaginations, particularly those of historians. Walter Prescott Webb's The Texas Rangers (1935) is a recreation of border life as well as the story of Texas's famous–and sometimes infamous–peace-keeping organization. In poetic prose, Paul Horgan traces the epic history of the Rio Grande and the people who depend upon that winding life-giving source in his Pulitzer Prizewinning study, Great River (1954). With equally serious intent and results, in The King Ranch (1957) Tom Lea narrates the history of the vast South Texas ranch, which spreads across the brushy southern tip of Texas from near Corpus Christi almost to Brownsville. The romance of early Texas ranching, the adventures of the Texas Rangers and border relationships are all captured in Lea's narrative. The colorful history of the California ranchers from 1850 to 1880 when they drove cattle to the gold fields from southern California up the coast or the San Joaquin Valley, before Texans headed herds toward Kansas, is related by Robert Glass Cleland in The Cattle of a Thousand Hills (1951). Still another historian, C. L. Sonnichsen, recounts the violent and often tragic history of the Apache Indians. In The Mescalero Apaches (1958), Sonnichsen writes forcefully, from the Indian's point of view, a history which echoes the saga of all Plains Indians.

By the late 1800s, fiction writers also began to recognize the multiplicity of border materials available for creative shaping. Both O. Henry and Stephen Crane wrote short stories set in this land after brief encounters with it. A sojourn on a sheep ranch during his Texas years furnished O. Henry with setting and characters for stories like "The Pimienta Pancakes," ⁴ but there is no sense of place in these stories with their tricky plots and humorous repartee. Crane's six-month trek across South Texas and into Mexico resulted in several stories with more serious themes but conveying as little sense of border life as O. Henry's. The climactic events of the much-anthologized "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky" take place in sight of the Rio Grande, but place here is of little significance except that it is in the West. ⁵ Easterner Alfred Henry Lewis, who in his youth had cowboyed in the West, created the Old Cattleman, who in Wolfville (1897) and six subsequent volumes narrates tales of the people and the life in Wolfville, a town closely akin to Tombstone, Arizona. Wolfville emerges through the narrator's eyes as a town where citizens and drifters alike observe the "Gods of the Old West" or perish. Humor tempers the violence and the racial bias in Lewis's fiction.

Writers who finally began to convey the richness of border experience were those who knew the life because they lived there. The folklore and life of border people caught twentieth-century imaginations. Of the many books J. Frank Dobie left to inform and to entertain Texas aficionados, several focus particularly on borderland tales. His first book is based on reminiscences of an early cowboy, John Young. Biography, history and tall tale, A Vaquero of the Brush Country (1929) makes clear how much the Texas cowboy owes to his Mexican counterpart for techniques, equipment and colorful language. In 1930, Dobie collected tales of lost mines and buried treasures in Coronado's Children. In its preface, Dobie says that the tales "are an outgrowth; they embody the geniuses of divergent races and peoples who even while fiercely opposing each other blended traditions." ⁶ Dobie records more buried treasure tales in Apache Gold and Yaqui Silver (1939). In Tongues of the Monte (1935), Dobie's observations and tales are an intimate introduction to folk life of the border.

Other folklore collectors have found satisfaction enough in retelling the tales they collect as Dobie did, ⁷ but borderland life and vaqueros' tales have also intrigued fiction writers. Certain themes are implicit in these materials: exploitation of the peon by both rich Mexicans and materialistic Anglos; racial prejudice and its tragic effect on Anglo-Mexican friendships and love affairs; the intestinal fortitude of the hardy, stubborn Anglo pioneers, who stuck it out until railroads brought technology to El Paso and the Rio Grande Valley and to southern California and rewarded visionaries with prosperity. Some of the best fiction explores the universal significance of ruins along the border which suggest the fates of all westering Americans who came to the frontier and could not or would not stay.

Frank Goodwyn, who grew up cowboying in the South Texas brush country, is one of the best at translating the tales of the vaqueros into English while preserving the cadence and the idiom of their speech. Although his gifts as a fiction writer are limited, he bases two novels upon campfire and barroom story sessions. The Magic of Limping John (1944) expands the legend of the Mexican fiddler who cannot cope finally with his friends' belief that he is a wizard. When he begins to believe in his own magic powers also, the trouble begins. In The Black Bull (1958), Goodwyn tells the tale of a poetic young Mexican cowboy, obsessed with catching the clever El Toro Moro. The vaquero cannot, after all, bring himself to hold the black bull captive after conquering him. Such gallantry leads to the vaquero's tragic end.

Authentic conveyance of the border Mexicans' superstitions and stories in the vaquero's idiom is Goodwyn's accomplishment. It is another Anglo with a similar background who shapes these materials into a literary effort. John Houghton Allen's Southwest (1952) gathers under one title essays and short stories, often poetic in rhythm and intent. The loosely connected chapters depict the land, the people, and the complicated relationships of Anglo-Mexicans through the eyes of a narrator who sees in the crumbling, degraded present the grandeur of times past.

Allen lacks discipline in structuring his often powerful but uneven poetic prose. Paul Horgan treats the same theme more artistically in his series of short stories, The Return of the Weed (1936). Horgan does not succumb to nostalgia for old times as does Allen, but explores with sensitivity what life might have been in "these abandoned places of human passage," which he says "are monuments to audacities long-gone and poor judgments, the almost inscrutable remains of aspiration wedded to tragedy." ⁸

It is this aspiration which often met with tragic setbacks in border pioneer life that inspired Cleo Dawson to plot a novel around the life of her gutsy mother, whose forceful personality and pragmatic acceptance of her hard life contributed largely to the settlement of Mission, Texas. She is Willy in Dawson's She Came to the Valley (1943).

The early rancher's life along the Arizona-Sonora border furnished both Stewart Edward White and Ross Santee with material for fiction. White, who spent a relatively short while as a cowboy on an Arizona ranch, records tales and sketches inspired by the experience in Arizona Nights (1907) and The Killer (1919), Santee, an artist before he was a writer, punched cows and wrangled horses around Globe for several years. Of the more than a dozen books which he wrote and illustrated, among his betterknown works are Men and Horses (1926), a collection of stories and sketches about ranch life in Gila County, and Cowboy (1928), a narration of the evolution of a cowboy.

One of the first novelists to explore border cultural conflicts in fiction was Helen Hunt Jackson. First published in 1884, Ramona, Jackson's romanticized tale of the tragic marriage of a half-breed girl raised as a Spaniard and the Indian Alessandro, became a best seller immediately. Whatever its value as a literary effort–and some say it is more sermon than novel–the book aroused much interest in Anglo treatment of the Indian and exploitation of the Spanish in southern California.

Social problems erupting in this century from river-border racial mixing are the themes of Claud Garner's and Hart Stilwell's fiction. Garner, himself a citrus grower, writes sympathetically of the illegal-alien problem in Wetback (1947). Presented from the point of view of Dionesio, a young peon with ambition for a better future, the novel presents with compassion a problem not yet solved along the southern border of the Southwest. Stilwell's Border City (1945) reveals heartache and tragedy inevitable in an Anglo-Mexican love affair between an idealistic newspaperman and a Mexican girl whom he champions after she is assaulted by her employer, a Border City politician. Stilwell's Uncovered Wagon (1947) is the story of a family's settlement in the Valley with emphasis on the enigmatic character of the protagonist Old Man.

These lesser literary efforts contribute to an understanding of the complexities of Anglo-Mexican integration along the borderlands. It remains for another native son to synthesize lore, life and history of this spacious land into art. Tom Lea of El Paso depicts border life both in his paintings and his novels. Illustrator of southwestern books–often in collaboration with fellow El Pasoan Carl Hertzog, master book designer–and muralist of note, Lea became a novelist at age forty when his painting no longer seemed spacious enough to convey the dimensions and universal concerns of the border life he knew so well.

Lea's novels depict three eras of Anglo-Indian-Spanish interaction. The Hands of Cantu (1964), which resulted from the writer's intensive digging into the history of the Spanish-Barbary horse, narrates a seventeenthcentury Spanish rancher's pursuit of a prized horse herd which has fallen into the hands of an Indian tribe in the Big Bend country. When The Brave Bulls was published (1949), Spaniards praised it for its powerful and sensitive examination of bull fighting. Published in nine languages finally, Lea's knowledgeable explanation of the mystique of bull fighting develops the theme of the fear of death. The torero Luis Bello conquers this fear when he accepts death as inevitable.

Lea's best novel, and the best to date of all fiction created from materials of border life, is The Wonderful Country (1952). Carefully crafted and authentic in detail, the narrative embodies in the character of Martin Brady-Martín Bredi the dilemmas and the problems inherent in Tex-Mex culture, even today. It is the late 1800s, and Brady, born a Texan but reared by the Mexican peasant Mateo Casas, feels the pull of his Anglo roots although he thinks in Spanish, looks Mexican, and loves his Mexican family. His search for who he really is takes him twice from the deserts and mountains of Chihuahua and Sonora to the Rio Grande and El Paso (Puerto in the novel). Cavalrymen, lawmen, Texas Rangers, capitalists, outlaws, Apaches, frontier women, and Mexican revolutionaries all play roles in the drama of Brady's quest astride his magnificent horse Lágrimas.

Lea sums up the wisdom and insight he reveals in this novel when he says:

It has always seemed to me that I was fortunate in being born on the border in a town where two nations and two peoples meet, where more than one mode of life and one mode of thought are in constant confrontation to test and to broaden and to deepen one's view of the world. At Paso del Norte I believe men are reminded daily that human beings do not all speak one tongue, all share in one fine set of aims and ideals, all conform to one established pattern of conduct, or all accept one definition of the good life or the bad or the purpose of it. ⁹

Lea's novels, deservedly, were nationally appraised by critics when they appeared. Other border writers, however, have received scant attention. Since 1960, literary treatment of the borderland has been limited. Most readable contemporary works are the short stories of Amado Muro and the sharply drawn El Paso vignettes of Elroy Bode. ¹⁰ In the 1960s, when interest in Mexican-American creative writers accelerated, depictions of Mexican life by Amado Muro were often praised and anthologized in collections of Chicano literary efforts. Mexicans in Muro's stories and sketches are seldom "born in elegant diapers."Often in first person, Muro relates the lives and the lore of the Mexican peasant. The humor in the tale of the wily Pedro, the swineherd whom neither the Devil nor the Lord can handle; the compassion in the stories about Uncle Rodolfo, the burly Chihuahuan who cares about people; and the sensitive portrayal of young Amado, whose family laughs at his efforts to grow up–these and numerous other stories of Mexican life as well as those of hobos on the Southern Pacific line won Amado Muro publication in major journals and citations for distinction as a short story writer. However, Amado Muro, the man in the flesh, was invisible.

It was another El Pasoan, Elroy Bode, also a writer of sketches and stories of border experience, whose admiration of Muro and curiosity led him to discover that a Chicano writer named Muro never existed. Amado Muro was really Chester Seltzer, Kenyon College educated and son of Louis B. Seltzer, editor of the Cleveland Press for a number of years. When Seltzer was not riding the rails, he lived in El Paso with his Mexican wife and his two sons, where he died suddenly in 1971. It was not until 1977 that The Collected Stories of Amado Muro was published.

Elroy Bode, who uncovered Muro's identity, is an El Paso schoolteacher who has had five volumes of his sketches, observations and stories published since 1967. His most recent book, To Be Alive (1979), won the C. L. Sonnichsen Publication Award. Describing the El Paso he has absorbed as pedestrian and observer on both sides of the river, Bode's sketches convey a feel for both the life and the people of modern border experience. Self-critical of his inability to write fiction, Bode at this point has abundant materials but not yet the inspiration to produce the structured, forceful story which would drive home the truths he so often explores in his sketchbook philosophical meandering.

Both Muro and Bode more than any other Anglos reveal the bilingual understanding of the Tex-Mex life that border Chicano writers have begun to insist upon. In the last two decades, Mexican-American writers have begun to gain critical attention. Reared on the border listening to "old men who sat around summer nights . . . smoking their cornhusk cigarettes and talking in low, gentle voices about violent things," as Américo Paredes describes his childhood in the dedication to "With His Pistol in His Hand": A Border Ballad and Its Hero (1958), these writers more than any before them exhibit the duality the border experience fosters. Those Chicanos who write best have been propelled steadily from their Mexican heritage into the world of the American educator. Most have doctorates; most are or have been professors in American schools. Liberated economically perhaps from their heritage but never in spirit, folklorist Paredes, fiction writers Rolando Hinojosa and Tomás Rivera, and the poet Alurista convey what it is like to be a member of a Mexicano migrant worker family in an Anglo world.

Paredes's interest has been in the border Mexican ballads or corridos, the narrative folk songs border Mexicans have composed to relate border conflicts and migrant woes since the mid-nineteenth century. Mexican heroes in these songs often outwit Anglo lawmen, but with reason, because they have been victimized by the Anglo establishment. Often the protagonist finally meets an ignominious death, but he dies a hero, never to be forgotten. In Texas, epic-makers in Spanish verse sing of Gregorio Cortez, who avenges his brother's murder by a trigger-happy sheriff by in turn killing the lawman and eluding Texas Rangers as he runs for the border. Equally heroic and similar in character to the border corrido composer has been the southern Californian outlaw, Joaquín Murieta, who became legendary as a bandit rebel against Anglo exploitation in the California-Sonora border country.

Texans Hinojosa and Rivera have each written of Mexican experience more in anecdotal and sketch form than in strongly structured stories, but both have produced critically acclaimed collections. Hinojosa, whose mother is Anglo, has written three books. Critics describe them as closely related narratives, but Hinojosa insists that these are novels, albeit somewhat experimental in form. His novels include Estampas del vale y otras obras (1973), Generaciones y semblanzas (1977), and Klail City y sus alrededores (1976). Rivera's novel . . . y no se lo tragó la tierra (1971) is a loosely structured collection of tales and vignettes which give insight into the Chicano farm worker's life. The most competent Chicano novelist to date is Rudolfo Anaya, a New Mexican, whose first novel Bless Me, Ultima (1972), portrays Mexican families of southeastern New Mexico. Roots of these families are deep in the Llano Estacado. Anaya's advantage over other Chicano writers is that he is the most able in separating his art from political and social concerns. The southern Californian Alurista is an innovative writer stylistically. His poetry, collected in three volumes, includes the critically praised Floricanto en Aztlán (1971). Alurista conveys his artistic vision in a poetic version of the interlingual speech of border Mexicans, known along the Rio Grande as Tex-Mex.

As with earlier writers, these observers and participants in border relationships possess the duality of personality that sensitive border inhabitants develop as their understanding of people and knowledge of languages grow. Nevertheless, the wealth of traditions and history of this region are as yet only surface-mined. The materials await another writer with Tom Lea's insight into border character and the ability to explore the universals of human experience in the context of this rich territory.

LOU RODENBERGER, McMurry College

Notes

1. The Collected Stories of Amado Muro (Austin: Thorp Springs Press, 1979).

2. Down the Santa Fe Trail and into Mexico (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1926), p. 207. 3. Nineteenth-century border life from a woman's point of view is narrated by Cora Montgomery (Mrs. W. L. Cazneau) in In Eagle Pass; or Life on the Border (New York: George Putnam, 1852), and Mrs. Egbert Viele in Following the Drums (Philadelphia: T. B. Putnam, 1864).

4. See Heart of the West in The Complete Works of O. Henry (Garden City: Garden City Publishing Co., 1937). Most of O. Henry's western stories are in this collection, although the story J. Frank Dobie nominates as the best range story in American fiction, "The Last of the Troubadours," appears in Sixes and Sevens.

5. See The University of Virginia Edition of the Works of Stephen Crane, ed. Fredson Bowers (Charlottesville: The University Press of Virginia, 1970), Vol. V, pp. 109–120.

6. Coronado's Children (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1930), p. v.

7. See Elton Miles, Tales of the Big Bend (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1976).

8. "Argument," The Return of the Weed (New York: Harper, 1968), p. 3.

9. A Picture Gallery (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968), p. 137.

10. See Texas Sketch Book, 1967; Sketch Book II, 1972; Alone in the World Looking, 1973; Home and Other Moments, 1975; and To Be Alive, 1979; all published by Texas Western Press, El Paso.

11. See "With His Pistol in His Hand": A Border Ballad and Its Hero (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1958).

Selected Bibliography

Allen, John Houghton. Southwest. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1952. New edition, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977.

Alurista. Floricanto en Aztlán. Los Angeles: Chicano Studies Center of UCLA, 1971.

Anaya, Rudolfo A. Bless Me, Ultima. Berkeley: Quinto Sol Publications, 1972.

Austin, Mary. The Land of Journeys' Ending. New York: Century, 1924.

. The Land of Little Rain. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1928.

Bean, Ellis. Memoir. Dallas: Book Club of Texas, 1930. Originally published 1856.

Bishop, Morris. Odyssey of Cabeza de Vaca. New York: Century, 1933.

Bode, Elroy, Alone in the World Looking. El Paso: Texas Western Press, 1973.

. Home and Other Moments. El Paso: Texas Western Press, 1975.

. Sketchbook II: Portraits in Nostalgia.. El Paso: Texas Western Press, 1972.

. Texas Sketchbook. El Paso: Texas Western Press, 1967.

. To Be Alive. El Paso: Texas Western Press, 1979.

Browne, J. Ross. Adventures in the Apache Country: A Tour Through Arizona and Sonora. New York: Harper, 1869.

Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez. The Narrative of Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca. Edited by F. W. Hodge. New York: Scribner's, 1907.

Cleland, Robert Glass. The Cattle on a Thousand Hills. San Marino, California: The Huntington Library, 1951.

Crane, Stephen. The University of Virginia Edition of the Works of Stephen Crane. Edited by Fredson Bowers. Charlottesville: The University Press of Virginia, 1970.

Dawson, Cleo. She Came to the Valley. New York: Morrow, 1943. New edition, Austin: Jenkins, 1972.

Dobie, J. Frank. Apache Gold and Yaqui Silver. New York: Little, Brown, 1939.

. Coronado's Children. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1973.

. Tongues of the Monte. New York: Little, Brown, 1947.

. A Vaquero of the Brush Country. New York: Little, Brown, 1957.

Duval, John C. The Adventures of Big Foot Wallace. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966.

Garner, Claud. Wetback. New York: Coward-McCann, 1947.

Gillett, James B. Six Years with the Texas Rangers. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1925. New edition, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1976.

Goodwyn, Frank. The Black Bull. New York: Doubleday, 1958.

. The Magic of Limping John. New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1944.

Green, Thomas Jefferson. Journal of the Texian Expedition Against Mier. New York: Harper, 1845. Facsimile reproduction, Austin: Steck, 1935.

Hinojosa, Rolando R. Estampas del valle y otras obras. Berkeley: Quinto Sol, 1973.

Horgan, Paul. Great River: The Rio Grande in North American History. 2 volumes. New York: Rinehart, 1954.

. The Return of the Weed. New York: Harper, 1936. Reprint, Flagstaff, Arizona: Northland Press, 1980.

Jackson, Helen Hunt. Ramona Boston: Little, Brown, 1935.

James, George Wharton. Arizona the Wonderland. Boston: Page, 1917.

. The Wonders of the Colorado Desert. Boston: Little, Brown, 1906.

Kendell, George Wilkins. Narrative of the Texan Santa Fe Expedition. New York: Harper, 1884. Reprint, Austin: Steck, 1935.

Lea, Tom. The Brave Bulls. Boston: Little, Brown, 1949.

. The Hands of Cantu. Boston: Little, Brown, 1964.

. A Picture Gallery. Boston: Little, Brown, 1968.

. The Wonderful Country. Boston: Little, Brown, 1952.

Lewis, Alfred Henry. Wolfvile. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1897.

Long, Haniel. Interlinear to Cabeza de Vaca. Santa Fe: Writers' Editions, 1936. Reprint, Pittsburgh: Frontier Press, 1969.

Lummis, Charles F. The Land of Poco Tiempo. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1928.

Magoffin, Susan Shelby. Down the Santa Fe Trail and into Mexico, 1846–1847. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1926. New edition, 1962. Facsimile reproduction, Santa Fe: William Gannon, 1975.

Muro, Amado. The Collected Stories of Amado Muro. Austin: Thorp Springs Press, 1979.

O. Henry. The Complete Works of O. Henry. Garden City, N.Y.: Garden City Publishing Co., 1937.

Pattie, James O. The Personal Narrative of James O. Pattie of Kentucky. Edited by Timothy Flint. Cincinnati: E. Flint, 1831.

Rivera, Tomás. . . . y no se lo tragó la tierra. Berkeley: Quinto Sol, 1971.

Santee, Ross. Cowboy. New York: Cosmopolitan, 1928.

. Men and Horses. New York: Century, 1926.

Sonnichsen, C. L. The Mescalero Apaches. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1960.

Stilwell, Hart. Border City. New York: Doubleday, 1945.

. Uncovered Wagon. New York: Doubleday, 1947.

Summerhayes, Martha. Vanished Arizona: Recollections of the Army Life of a New England woman. Glorieta, New Mexico: Rio Grande Press, 1970. Originally published in 1911.

Van Dyke, John C. The Desert. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1915.

Villagrá, Gaspar Pérez de. History of New Mexico. 1610. Translated by Gilberto Espinoso. Los Angeles: The Quivera Society, 1933.

Webb, Walter Prescott. The Texas Rangers. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974.

White, Stewart Edward. Arizona Nights. New York: McClure and Outing, 1907.

. The Killer. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Page, 1919.

[Contents]    [Index]

© Texas Christian University Press, 1998. All rights reserved.